In what way can bacteria acquire antibiotic resistance?

Bacteria can acquire antibiotic resistance primarily through mutations or by obtaining resistance genes from other bacteria via a process known as horizontal gene transfer. This mechanism allows for the rapid spread of resistance traits among bacterial populations, particularly in environments where antibiotics are prevalent.

Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication, leading to changes in protein targets of antibiotics or in the production of enzymes that can inactivate these drugs. Additionally, horizontal gene transfer involves various methods such as transformation (uptake of naked DNA), transduction (transfer of DNA through bacteriophages), and conjugation (direct transfer of DNA through cell-to-cell contact). These processes enable bacteria to share resistance genes, often leading to the emergence of multi-drug-resistant strains, which are particularly challenging to treat clinically.

While environmental factors and biofilms can influence the overall growth and survival of bacterial populations and may contribute to the persistence of resistance, they do not directly facilitate the acquisition of resistance genes as effectively as mutations and horizontal gene transfer do.